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| − | == | + | == '''Introduction''' == |
| − | + | Eboracum was a fort and city in the Roman province of Britannia. In its prime it was the largest town in northern Britain and a provincial capital. The site remained occupied after the decline of the Roman Empire and ultimately evolved into the present-day city York, occupying the same site in North Yorkshire, England. | |
| + | |||
| + | == '''Appearance''' == | ||
| + | [[File:York shambles-at-night.jpg]] | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Economy''' == | ||
| + | [[]] | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Geography''' == | ||
| + | [[]] | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''History''' == | ||
| + | [[File:Constantine York Minster.jpg]] | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | === Etymology === | ||
| + | The first known recorded mention of Eboracum by name is dated circa 95–104 AD and is an address containing the Latin form of the settlement's name, "Eburaci", on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in what is now the modern Northumberland. During the Roman period, the name was also written in the form Eboracum and Eburacum. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The etymology of Eboracum is uncertain as the language of the indigenous population of the area was never recorded. However, the generally accepted view of British history, is that the inhabitants of Britain at this time spoke a Celtic language related to modern Welsh. This language has been reconstructed from Latin place names and modern Celtic languages, and has been called by scholars Common Brythonic. The name "Eboracum" is thought to have derived from the Common Brythonic Iburakon which probably means "place of the yew trees". The word for "yew" was probably something like *ibura in Celtic (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew-tree", Irish: iúr (older iobhar), Scottish Gaelic: iubhar, Welsh: efwr "alder buckthorn", Breton: evor "alder buckthorn"), combined with the suffix *-āko(n) "place" (cf. Welsh -og)[7] meaning "place of the yew trees" (cf. efrog in Welsh, eabhrach/iubhrach in Irish Gaelic and eabhrach/iobhrach in Scottish Gaelic, by which names the city is known in those languages). The name is then thought to have been Latinized by replacing -acon with -acum, according to a common use noted in Gaul. The different Évry, Ivry, Ivrey, Ivory in France would all come from *Eboracum / *Eboriacum; for example: Ivry-la-Bataille (Eure, Ebriaco in 1023–1033), Ivry-le-Temple (Evriacum in 1199) Évry (Essonne, Everiaco in 1158), etc. | ||
| + | |||
| + | === Origins === | ||
| + | The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD but advance beyond the Humber did not take place until the early 70s AD. This was because the people in the area known as the Brigantes by the Romans became a Roman client state. When their leadership changed becoming more hostile to Rome, Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the Ninth Legion north from Lincoln across the Humber. Eboracum was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. In the same year Cerialis was appointed Governor of Britain. | ||
| + | |||
| + | A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As a result permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river. | ||
| + | |||
| + | === Military Influences === | ||
| + | ==== The Roman Fortress at Eboracum ==== | ||
| + | From its foundation the Roman fort of Eboracum was aligned on a north-east/south-east bearing on the north bank of the River Ouse. It measured 1600 pes monetalis (473.6m) by 1360 pes monetalis (402.56m) and covered an area of 50 acres (200,000 m2). The standard suit of streets running through the castra is assumed, although some evidence exists for the via praetoria, via decumana and via sagularis. Much of the modern understanding of the Fortress defences has come from extensive excavations undertaken by Leslie Peter Wenham. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary. These defences originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers. The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Multiple phases of restructuring and rebuilding within the fortress are recorded. Rebuilding in stone began in the early second century AD under Trajan but may have taken as long as the start of the reign of Septimius Severus to be completed; a period of over 100 years. Estimates suggest that over 48000m3 of stone were required, largely consisting of Magnesian Limestone from the quarries nearby the Roman settlement of Calcaria (modern Tadcaster). | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Eboracum and its Roman Emperors ==== | ||
| + | There is evidence that the Emperor Hadrian visited in 122 on his way north to plan his great walled frontier. He certainly brought with him the Sixth Legion to replace the existing garrison. Emperor Septimius Severus visited Eboracum in 208 and made it his base for campaigning in Scotland. The fortress wall was probably reconstructed during his stay and at the east angle it is possible to see this work standing almost to full height. The Imperial court was based in York until at least AD 211, in which year Severus died and was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In the later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor Constantius I came to Eboracum and, in 306, became the second Emperor to die there. His son Constantine was instantly proclaimed as successor by the troops based in the fortress. Although it took Constantine eighteen years to become sole ruler of the Empire, he may have retained an interest in Eboracum and the reconstruction of the south-west front of the fortress with polygonally-fronted interval towers and the two great corner towers, one of which (the 'Multangular Tower') still survives, is probably his work. In the colonia, Constantine's reign was a time of prosperity and a number of extensive stone town houses of the period have been excavated. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Imperial Government ==== | ||
| + | For the Romans, Eboracum, was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the 3rd century division of the province of Britannia, the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior. By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia, the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers. This mark of Imperial favor was probably a recognition of Eboracum as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants, and veteran soldiers. In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== An Ancient City of Culture ==== | ||
| + | As a busy port and a provincial capital Eboracum was a cosmopolitan city with residents from throughout the Roman Empire. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Fine Dining & Grave Goods ===== | ||
| + | Substantial evidence for the use of cereal crops and animal husbandry can be found in Eboracum. A first-century warehouse fire from Coney Street, on the North bank of the Ouse and outside the fortress, showed that spelt wheat was the most common cereal grain used at that time, followed by barley. Cattle, sheep / goat and pigs are the major sources of meat. Hunting scenes, as shown through Romano-British 'hunt cups', suggest that hunting is a popular pastime and diet would be supplemented through the hunting of hare, deer and boar. A variety of food preparation vessels (mortaria) have been excavated from the city and large millstones used in the processing of cereals have been found in rural sites outside the colonia at Heslington and Stamford Bridge. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In terms of the ceremonial use of food; dining scenes are used on tombstones to represent an aspirational image of the deceased in the afterlife, reclining on a couch and being served food and wine. The tombstones of Julia Velva, Mantinia Maercia and Aelia Aeliana each depict a dining scene. Additionally, several inhumation burials from Trentholme Drive contained hen's eggs placed in ceramic urns as grave goods for the deceased. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Arenas''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Attractions''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Bedern Hall]] | ||
* -- [[Jorvik Viking Centre]] | * -- [[Jorvik Viking Centre]] | ||
| − | * -- [[York Castle Museum]] | + | * -- [[Kings Manor]] -- |
| − | * -- [[York Dungeon]] | + | * -- [[Mansion House]] -- is the home of the Lord Mayors of York during their term in office. |
| − | * -- [[The Shambles of York]] | + | * -- [[Memorial Gardens]] |
| + | * -- [[Merchant Adventurers' Hall]] -- The Merchant Adventurers' Hall is a medieval guildhall in the city of York, England, and was one of the most important buildings in the medieval city. -- (Fossgate) | ||
| + | * -- [[Merchant Taylors Hall]] -- The Merchant Taylors' Hall in York, England, is a medieval guildhall near the city wall in the Aldwark area of the city. | ||
| + | * -- [[Museum Gardens]] | ||
| + | * -- [[Saint William's College]] -- St. William's College was founded in 1461 as a home for the Chantry Priests and named after St. William, Archbishop of York in 1154. Now the building is restored to its former glory and as well as housing a popular restaurant, it is used for conferences, exhibitions and receptions. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Hospitium]] | ||
| + | * -- [[York Barbican]] | ||
| + | * -- [[York Castle Museum]] -- A recreated Victorian cobbled street with costumed guides and period rooms including a schoolroom. -- (Eye of York) | ||
| + | * -- [[York Central Library]] (Library Square) | ||
| + | * -- [[York's Chocolate Story]] -- Tour exploring the history of chocolate and the city's confectioners, with cafe and shop. -- (3-4 Kings Square) | ||
| + | * -- [[York Dungeon]] -- A high tech ghost house attraction with costumed characters and state-of-the-art scares. -- (12 Clifford Street) | ||
| + | * -- [[York Guildhall]] | ||
| + | * -- [[The Ghost Trail of York]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Cafes''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Bettys Cafe and Tea Rooms]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[Caffe Nero]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Clubs''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Kuda]] -- Sizable nightclub with bar/lounge and first-floor balcony, plus visiting DJs and party nights. | ||
| + | * -- [[Revolution]] -- ''Revolution'' is one of York's 'hottest' bars situated in the former premises of 'The Yorkshire Herald' newspaper. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Duchess]] -- Large club venue for rock, soul and indie music performances, plus cinema events. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Cemeteries''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''City Government''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Crime''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Citizens of the City''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Current Events''' == | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Fortifications''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Clifford's Tower]] -- 13th-century castle keep, built on a grass mound, formerly used as a prison and royal mint. -- (Tower Street) | ||
| + | * -- [[York City Walls]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Galleries''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Aura exhibition]] -- Contemporary Jewellery Exhibition | ||
| + | * -- [[Blue Tree Gallery]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[Minster Fine Art]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Japanese Print Shop]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[York Art Gallery]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Holy Ground''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Dean & Chapter]] -- Cathedral | ||
| + | * -- [[St Helen's Church York]] | ||
| + | * -- [[St. Martin le Grand]] | ||
| + | * -- [[St Michael le Belfrey]] -- St Michael le Belfrey is an Anglican church in York, England. It is situated directly next to York Minster in the centre of the city. (1536) | ||
| + | * -- [[Saint Mary's Abbey]] | ||
| + | * -- [[York Minster]] -- is the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe with vast stained glass windows, interactive Undercroft exhibition and tower tours, it dominates the city. -- (637 AD) -- Deangate | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Hospitals''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Hotels & Hostels''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Grand Hotel & Spa - York Centre]] | ||
| + | * -- [[Grays Court Hotel]] -- Elegant, antiques-furnished rooms in an 11th-century house with a Jacobean oak-panelled gallery. -- (Chapter House Street) | ||
| + | * -- [[Hilton York Hotel]] -- Polished option with a modern restaurant and a sports bar, plus complimentary breakfast. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Judge's Lodging]] -- Airy modern rooms in Georgian hotel with free breakfast, plus small plate dining and rooftop lounge. | ||
| + | * -- [[Middletons Hotel]] - Unique hotel in 6 buildings with simple, modern rooms including free breakfast and a 24-hour gym. | ||
| + | * -- [[Park Inn by Radisson - York City Centre]] - Modern lodging with a relaxed river-view bar and restaurant, plus meeting space and free Wi-Fi. | ||
| + | * -- [[Travelodge Hotel - York Centre]] - Modest selection offering straightforward rooms with flat-screen TVs & options with sofabeds. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Queens Hotel]] - Riverside hotel offering airy bedrooms with traditional style, a brasserie restaurant and a bar. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Landmarks''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[Roman Column]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Libraries''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[York Central Library]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Mass Media''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | * -- [[Eatyork.com - Yorks Comprehensive Food Guide]] -- Book Publisher | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Monuments''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Museums''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Fairfax House]] -- Imposing Georgian townhouse museum with significant collections of furniture, paintings and clocks. -- () | ||
| + | * -- [[Quilters Guild Of The British Isles]] -- The Quilt Museum and Gallery, which opened in York on 7 June 2008, is Britain's first museum dedicated to the history of British quilt making and textile arts. The museum was founded and is operated by The Quilters' Guild of the British Isles. -- (St Anthonys Hall, Peasholme Green) | ||
| + | * -- [[Treasurer's House]] -- Well-preserved house filled with 17th- and 18th-century furniture, ceramics, textiles and paintings. -- () | ||
| + | * -- [[York Castle Museum]] -- A recreated Victorian cobbled street with costumed guides and period rooms including a schoolroom. -- () | ||
| + | * -- [[York Observatory]] -- -- () | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- -- () | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- -- () | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Parks''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Dean's Park]] | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Pubs''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Bay Horse]] -- A rambling inn moments from the river, for real ales, classic pub food or an overnight stay. | ||
| + | * -- [[Brigantes Bar & Brasserie]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Golden Fleece]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Hole in the Wall]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Black Swan]] -- Traditional-style rooms in a timber-framed pub with a restaurant, dating from the 16th century. -- (23 Peasholme Green) | ||
| + | * -- [[The Lamb & Lion Inn]] -- 17th-century brick pub featuring simple chic quarters. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Light Horseman]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[Last Drop Inn]] -- Old-school boozer serving well-kept cask ales and simple pub grub, particularly sausages. | ||
| + | * -- [[Masons Arms]] -- Simple rooms with en suite bathrooms in a traditional pub with fireplace, bar menu and beer garden. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Five Lions]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Royal Oak]] -- Smart, traditional pub-restaurant in a 14th-century building with leather banquettes and a library. | ||
| + | * -- [[Guy Fawkes Inn]] -- Antique furnishings in boutique hotel rooms and a traditional pub in a Georgian townhouse. | ||
| + | * -- [[Gillygate Pub with Rooms]] -- Traditional inn offering a terrace, plus relaxed rooms with free breakfast, Wi-Fi and parking. | ||
| + | * -- [[House Of The Trembling Madness]] -- Stuffed animal heads line the walls of this quirky medieval bar serving hard-to-find Belgian beers. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Blue Bell]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Lamb & Lion Inn]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Maltings]] -- Cosy, wooden-floored boozer with a host of real ales, traditional ciders and a basic pub menu. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Punchbowl]] -- 18th-century pub with a typical British menu, a traditional interior and a menu of guest ales. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Three Tuns]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[Stonegate Yard & Bar Brasserie]] | ||
| + | * -- [[Three Legged Mare]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[Ye Olde Starre Inn]] -- Traditional pub with flock wallpaper, wooden boards and a fire, for cask ales and comfort food. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Red Lion]] -- Cask ales and British food in half-timbered pub with Tudor oak beams, open fires and beer garden. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Rook & Gaskill]] -- Real ales, craft beer and food from sharing platters to burgers and chilli in a neighbourhood pub. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Private Residences''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Restaurants''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | * -- [[Russells]] -- Housed in a 16th-century inn, this casual spot has an a la carte comfort food menu and carvery. | ||
| + | * -- [[The Star Inn the City]] -- Contemporary restaurant with a riverside terrace and an all-day menu of Modern British dishes. (Lendal Engine House, Museum Street) | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Ruins''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Schools''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
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| + | |||
| + | == '''Shopping''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[Coppergate Shopping Centre]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[The Shambles of York]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[York Cycleworks Ltd]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Telecommunications''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Theaters''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[York Theatre Royal]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Tourist Attractions''' == | ||
| + | |||
| + | == '''Transportation''' == | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | * -- [[]] -- | ||
| + | |||
| + | == <span style="color:#800000;">'''Vampires of the City''' == | ||
| + | == '''Websites''' == | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | <br> | ||
---- | ---- | ||
Latest revision as of 19:31, 8 June 2016
Contents
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Appearance
- 3 Economy
- 4 Geography
- 5 History
- 6 Arenas
- 7 Attractions
- 8 Cafes
- 9 Clubs
- 10 Cemeteries
- 11 City Government
- 12 Crime
- 13 Citizens of the City
- 14 Current Events
- 15 Fortifications
- 16 Galleries
- 17 Holy Ground
- 18 Hospitals
- 19 Hotels & Hostels
- 20 Landmarks
- 21 Libraries
- 22 Mass Media
- 23 Monuments
- 24 Museums
- 25 Parks
- 26 Pubs
- 27 Private Residences
- 28 Restaurants
- 29 Ruins
- 30 Schools
- 31 Shopping
- 32 Telecommunications
- 33 Theaters
- 34 Tourist Attractions
- 35 Transportation
- 36 Vampires of the City
- 37 Websites
Introduction
Eboracum was a fort and city in the Roman province of Britannia. In its prime it was the largest town in northern Britain and a provincial capital. The site remained occupied after the decline of the Roman Empire and ultimately evolved into the present-day city York, occupying the same site in North Yorkshire, England.
Appearance
Economy
[[]]
Geography
[[]]
History
Etymology
The first known recorded mention of Eboracum by name is dated circa 95–104 AD and is an address containing the Latin form of the settlement's name, "Eburaci", on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in what is now the modern Northumberland. During the Roman period, the name was also written in the form Eboracum and Eburacum.
The etymology of Eboracum is uncertain as the language of the indigenous population of the area was never recorded. However, the generally accepted view of British history, is that the inhabitants of Britain at this time spoke a Celtic language related to modern Welsh. This language has been reconstructed from Latin place names and modern Celtic languages, and has been called by scholars Common Brythonic. The name "Eboracum" is thought to have derived from the Common Brythonic Iburakon which probably means "place of the yew trees". The word for "yew" was probably something like *ibura in Celtic (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew-tree", Irish: iúr (older iobhar), Scottish Gaelic: iubhar, Welsh: efwr "alder buckthorn", Breton: evor "alder buckthorn"), combined with the suffix *-āko(n) "place" (cf. Welsh -og)[7] meaning "place of the yew trees" (cf. efrog in Welsh, eabhrach/iubhrach in Irish Gaelic and eabhrach/iobhrach in Scottish Gaelic, by which names the city is known in those languages). The name is then thought to have been Latinized by replacing -acon with -acum, according to a common use noted in Gaul. The different Évry, Ivry, Ivrey, Ivory in France would all come from *Eboracum / *Eboriacum; for example: Ivry-la-Bataille (Eure, Ebriaco in 1023–1033), Ivry-le-Temple (Evriacum in 1199) Évry (Essonne, Everiaco in 1158), etc.
Origins
The Roman conquest of Britain began in 43 AD but advance beyond the Humber did not take place until the early 70s AD. This was because the people in the area known as the Brigantes by the Romans became a Roman client state. When their leadership changed becoming more hostile to Rome, Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the Ninth Legion north from Lincoln across the Humber. Eboracum was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. In the same year Cerialis was appointed Governor of Britain.
A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As a result permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river.
Military Influences
The Roman Fortress at Eboracum
From its foundation the Roman fort of Eboracum was aligned on a north-east/south-east bearing on the north bank of the River Ouse. It measured 1600 pes monetalis (473.6m) by 1360 pes monetalis (402.56m) and covered an area of 50 acres (200,000 m2). The standard suit of streets running through the castra is assumed, although some evidence exists for the via praetoria, via decumana and via sagularis. Much of the modern understanding of the Fortress defences has come from extensive excavations undertaken by Leslie Peter Wenham.
The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary. These defences originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers. The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108.
Multiple phases of restructuring and rebuilding within the fortress are recorded. Rebuilding in stone began in the early second century AD under Trajan but may have taken as long as the start of the reign of Septimius Severus to be completed; a period of over 100 years. Estimates suggest that over 48000m3 of stone were required, largely consisting of Magnesian Limestone from the quarries nearby the Roman settlement of Calcaria (modern Tadcaster).
Eboracum and its Roman Emperors
There is evidence that the Emperor Hadrian visited in 122 on his way north to plan his great walled frontier. He certainly brought with him the Sixth Legion to replace the existing garrison. Emperor Septimius Severus visited Eboracum in 208 and made it his base for campaigning in Scotland. The fortress wall was probably reconstructed during his stay and at the east angle it is possible to see this work standing almost to full height. The Imperial court was based in York until at least AD 211, in which year Severus died and was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta.
In the later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor Constantius I came to Eboracum and, in 306, became the second Emperor to die there. His son Constantine was instantly proclaimed as successor by the troops based in the fortress. Although it took Constantine eighteen years to become sole ruler of the Empire, he may have retained an interest in Eboracum and the reconstruction of the south-west front of the fortress with polygonally-fronted interval towers and the two great corner towers, one of which (the 'Multangular Tower') still survives, is probably his work. In the colonia, Constantine's reign was a time of prosperity and a number of extensive stone town houses of the period have been excavated.
Imperial Government
For the Romans, Eboracum, was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the 3rd century division of the province of Britannia, the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior. By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia, the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers. This mark of Imperial favor was probably a recognition of Eboracum as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants, and veteran soldiers. In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda.
An Ancient City of Culture
As a busy port and a provincial capital Eboracum was a cosmopolitan city with residents from throughout the Roman Empire.
Fine Dining & Grave Goods
Substantial evidence for the use of cereal crops and animal husbandry can be found in Eboracum. A first-century warehouse fire from Coney Street, on the North bank of the Ouse and outside the fortress, showed that spelt wheat was the most common cereal grain used at that time, followed by barley. Cattle, sheep / goat and pigs are the major sources of meat. Hunting scenes, as shown through Romano-British 'hunt cups', suggest that hunting is a popular pastime and diet would be supplemented through the hunting of hare, deer and boar. A variety of food preparation vessels (mortaria) have been excavated from the city and large millstones used in the processing of cereals have been found in rural sites outside the colonia at Heslington and Stamford Bridge.
In terms of the ceremonial use of food; dining scenes are used on tombstones to represent an aspirational image of the deceased in the afterlife, reclining on a couch and being served food and wine. The tombstones of Julia Velva, Mantinia Maercia and Aelia Aeliana each depict a dining scene. Additionally, several inhumation burials from Trentholme Drive contained hen's eggs placed in ceramic urns as grave goods for the deceased.
Arenas
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Attractions
- -- Bedern Hall
- -- Jorvik Viking Centre
- -- Kings Manor --
- -- Mansion House -- is the home of the Lord Mayors of York during their term in office.
- -- Memorial Gardens
- -- Merchant Adventurers' Hall -- The Merchant Adventurers' Hall is a medieval guildhall in the city of York, England, and was one of the most important buildings in the medieval city. -- (Fossgate)
- -- Merchant Taylors Hall -- The Merchant Taylors' Hall in York, England, is a medieval guildhall near the city wall in the Aldwark area of the city.
- -- Museum Gardens
- -- Saint William's College -- St. William's College was founded in 1461 as a home for the Chantry Priests and named after St. William, Archbishop of York in 1154. Now the building is restored to its former glory and as well as housing a popular restaurant, it is used for conferences, exhibitions and receptions.
- -- The Hospitium
- -- York Barbican
- -- York Castle Museum -- A recreated Victorian cobbled street with costumed guides and period rooms including a schoolroom. -- (Eye of York)
- -- York Central Library (Library Square)
- -- York's Chocolate Story -- Tour exploring the history of chocolate and the city's confectioners, with cafe and shop. -- (3-4 Kings Square)
- -- York Dungeon -- A high tech ghost house attraction with costumed characters and state-of-the-art scares. -- (12 Clifford Street)
- -- York Guildhall
- -- The Ghost Trail of York --
Cafes
- -- Bettys Cafe and Tea Rooms --
- -- Caffe Nero --
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Clubs
- -- Kuda -- Sizable nightclub with bar/lounge and first-floor balcony, plus visiting DJs and party nights.
- -- Revolution -- Revolution is one of York's 'hottest' bars situated in the former premises of 'The Yorkshire Herald' newspaper.
- -- The Duchess -- Large club venue for rock, soul and indie music performances, plus cinema events.
Cemeteries
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City Government
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Crime
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Citizens of the City
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Current Events
Fortifications
- -- Clifford's Tower -- 13th-century castle keep, built on a grass mound, formerly used as a prison and royal mint. -- (Tower Street)
- -- York City Walls
Galleries
- -- Aura exhibition -- Contemporary Jewellery Exhibition
- -- Blue Tree Gallery --
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- -- Minster Fine Art --
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- -- The Japanese Print Shop --
- -- York Art Gallery --
Holy Ground
- -- Dean & Chapter -- Cathedral
- -- St Helen's Church York
- -- St. Martin le Grand
- -- St Michael le Belfrey -- St Michael le Belfrey is an Anglican church in York, England. It is situated directly next to York Minster in the centre of the city. (1536)
- -- Saint Mary's Abbey
- -- York Minster -- is the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe with vast stained glass windows, interactive Undercroft exhibition and tower tours, it dominates the city. -- (637 AD) -- Deangate
Hospitals
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Hotels & Hostels
- -- Grand Hotel & Spa - York Centre
- -- Grays Court Hotel -- Elegant, antiques-furnished rooms in an 11th-century house with a Jacobean oak-panelled gallery. -- (Chapter House Street)
- -- Hilton York Hotel -- Polished option with a modern restaurant and a sports bar, plus complimentary breakfast.
- -- The Judge's Lodging -- Airy modern rooms in Georgian hotel with free breakfast, plus small plate dining and rooftop lounge.
- -- Middletons Hotel - Unique hotel in 6 buildings with simple, modern rooms including free breakfast and a 24-hour gym.
- -- Park Inn by Radisson - York City Centre - Modern lodging with a relaxed river-view bar and restaurant, plus meeting space and free Wi-Fi.
- -- Travelodge Hotel - York Centre - Modest selection offering straightforward rooms with flat-screen TVs & options with sofabeds.
- -- The Queens Hotel - Riverside hotel offering airy bedrooms with traditional style, a brasserie restaurant and a bar.
Landmarks
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- -- Roman Column --
Libraries
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- -- York Central Library --
Mass Media
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- -- Eatyork.com - Yorks Comprehensive Food Guide -- Book Publisher
Monuments
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Museums
- -- Fairfax House -- Imposing Georgian townhouse museum with significant collections of furniture, paintings and clocks. -- ()
- -- Quilters Guild Of The British Isles -- The Quilt Museum and Gallery, which opened in York on 7 June 2008, is Britain's first museum dedicated to the history of British quilt making and textile arts. The museum was founded and is operated by The Quilters' Guild of the British Isles. -- (St Anthonys Hall, Peasholme Green)
- -- Treasurer's House -- Well-preserved house filled with 17th- and 18th-century furniture, ceramics, textiles and paintings. -- ()
- -- York Castle Museum -- A recreated Victorian cobbled street with costumed guides and period rooms including a schoolroom. -- ()
- -- York Observatory -- -- ()
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Parks
- -- Dean's Park
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Pubs
- -- Bay Horse -- A rambling inn moments from the river, for real ales, classic pub food or an overnight stay.
- -- Brigantes Bar & Brasserie --
- -- The Golden Fleece --
- -- The Hole in the Wall --
- -- The Black Swan -- Traditional-style rooms in a timber-framed pub with a restaurant, dating from the 16th century. -- (23 Peasholme Green)
- -- The Lamb & Lion Inn -- 17th-century brick pub featuring simple chic quarters.
- -- The Light Horseman --
- -- Last Drop Inn -- Old-school boozer serving well-kept cask ales and simple pub grub, particularly sausages.
- -- Masons Arms -- Simple rooms with en suite bathrooms in a traditional pub with fireplace, bar menu and beer garden.
- -- The Five Lions --
- -- The Royal Oak -- Smart, traditional pub-restaurant in a 14th-century building with leather banquettes and a library.
- -- Guy Fawkes Inn -- Antique furnishings in boutique hotel rooms and a traditional pub in a Georgian townhouse.
- -- Gillygate Pub with Rooms -- Traditional inn offering a terrace, plus relaxed rooms with free breakfast, Wi-Fi and parking.
- -- House Of The Trembling Madness -- Stuffed animal heads line the walls of this quirky medieval bar serving hard-to-find Belgian beers.
- -- The Blue Bell --
- -- The Lamb & Lion Inn --
- -- The Maltings -- Cosy, wooden-floored boozer with a host of real ales, traditional ciders and a basic pub menu.
- -- The Punchbowl -- 18th-century pub with a typical British menu, a traditional interior and a menu of guest ales.
- -- The Three Tuns --
- -- Stonegate Yard & Bar Brasserie
- -- Three Legged Mare --
- -- Ye Olde Starre Inn -- Traditional pub with flock wallpaper, wooden boards and a fire, for cask ales and comfort food.
- -- The Red Lion -- Cask ales and British food in half-timbered pub with Tudor oak beams, open fires and beer garden.
- -- The Rook & Gaskill -- Real ales, craft beer and food from sharing platters to burgers and chilli in a neighbourhood pub.
Private Residences
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Restaurants
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- -- Russells -- Housed in a 16th-century inn, this casual spot has an a la carte comfort food menu and carvery.
- -- The Star Inn the City -- Contemporary restaurant with a riverside terrace and an all-day menu of Modern British dishes. (Lendal Engine House, Museum Street)
Ruins
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Schools
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Shopping
- -- Coppergate Shopping Centre --
- -- The Shambles of York --
- -- York Cycleworks Ltd --
Telecommunications
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Theaters
Tourist Attractions
Transportation
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Vampires of the City
Websites
